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Schaller (2006:100), notes that: “Behind the concept of evoked culture lurk many wonderful findings from research in evolutionary theory and behavioral ecology.” We are not claiming that integrating the concept of evoked culture will revolutionize sociology, or even the way sociologists examine transmitted culture. The concepts of evoked and transmitted culture are complementary distal and proximate explanations that should be recognized as inseparable approaches that help us to avoid naïve nature–nurture arguments. Although transmitted culture is vital for understanding human behavior and cultural variation, it has a symbiotic partner – evoked culture. This concept of culture dominates sociology where it is viewed as a phenomenon decoupled from biology ( Cohen, 2010). Transmitted culture is the spread of mental representations of knowledge, meaning, and value from person to person across the generations via non-genetic means. Our emphasis in this paper that over the expanse of evolutionary time nature and nurture – genes and culture – have been mutually evocative, and what has emerged from this interplay can be fruitfully examined from both traditional sociological and biosociological frameworks. In his Presidential Address to the ASA, Douglas Massey (2002:1) made much the same point: “Sociologists have allowed the fact that we are social beings to obscure the biological foundations upon which our behavior ultimately rests”.
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This rejection was and is ill-advised since the natural sciences have a lot to teach us. Its embrace of Durkheim the social factist and the rejection of the Durkheim of Homo duplex ( Layton, 2010) led to sociology’s wholesale dismissal of the natural sciences. Sociology’s disengagement from biology arguably began with Auguste Comte’s dismissal of psychology as metaphysical, which ruled out sociological interest in the brain. This does not mean that sociology has to be in conflict with natural science. His point is that the phenomena of sociology are mostly intangible concepts, such as “society,” “norms,” and “values” as opposed to the tangibles of natural science. Turner (2007:357), notes that social theorizing tends to take place within a philosophical framework that is in “potential conflict” with natural science. We argue that an appreciation of evoked culture complements transmitted culture and deepens and broadens our understanding of cultural life and practices. This paper provides several examples of how evoked and transmitted culture are tightly bound (nature evoked by culture, and culture evoked by nature) as well as identifying two specific genetic polymorphisms associated with adaptive approach–avoidance behaviors and found in highly variable frequencies in different cultures around the world. In other words, practices will be transmitted genetically as well as culturally. The practices are then passed on to subsequent generations as normative, and individuals best suited to these normative practices will enjoy greater fitness benefits than those less suited. The concept of evoked culture brings biology “back in” since it identifies ecological challenges that evoked certain practices based on evolutionary imperatives.
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The traditional sociological view of culture has been almost exclusively that of transmitted culture decoupled from biology. 2Department of Police Administration, Chosun University, Gwangju, South Korea.1Department of Criminal Justice, Boise state University, Boise, ID, USA.